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_acid rain _
By: bill clinton
Acid Rain is a serious problem with disastrous effects. Every day this problem
increases. Many believe that this issue is too small to deal with, but if the
acid rain problem is not met with head on, the effects on people, plants,
animals, and the economy will only worsen. In the following paragraphs you
will learn what acid rain is, the effects it has on human life, animals, the
economy, the economic costs, and what is being done to help to stop this
problem. This topic is very important because acid rain effects everyone
everywhere all over the world. I. What is acid rain? Acid rain is the
combination of two chemicals released into the atmosphere. These chemicals are
sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (Nox). Natural sources such as
volcanoes, sea spray, rotting vegetation and plankton are all contributors to
acid rain, but burning fossil fuels, such as coal and oil which are referred
to as dry emissions are largely to blame for more than half of the emissions
into the world.2 Nationally, one hundred and twenty tons of sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen dioxide are emitted into the air each day.4 A. How is acid rain
formed? When the sulfur dioxide reaches the atmosphere, it oxidizes to first
form a sulfate ion. It then becomes sulfuric acid when it joins with hydrogen
atoms in the air and falls back down to earth, usually in the form of rain,
snow, or fog.1 Oxidation occurs the most in clouds and heavily polluted air
where other compounds such as ammonia and ozone help to catalyze the reaction,
converting more sulphur dioxide to sulphuric acid. The following are the
stoichiometric equations for the formation of sulphuric acid: S (in coal) + O2
? SO2 2 SO2 + O2 ? 2 SO3 SO3 + H2O ? H2SO4 Nitric oxide and nitric dioxide are
also components of acid rain. Its sources are mainly from power stations and
exhaust fumes. Like sulphur dioxide, these nitrogen dioxides also rise into
the air and are oxidized in the clouds to form nitric acid. Through this
diagram you can better understand how acid rain is formed and emitted into the
earth: II. Effects of acid rain Acid rain causes problems in almost every
aspect of the environment. Acid rain can have a devastating effect on aquatic
life, crops, forests, buildings, and also human life. A. The human environment
Acid rain has a multiplicity of effects in the human environment. The
corrosion of limestone buildings in towns and cities is one such effect. The
acid also eats through the pipes that channel water to the lakes. Far more
insidious are the increasing incidents of lung cancer, bronchitis, emphysema
and asthma attributed to breathing in the tiny particles of sulphur and other
pollutants.2 Many people drink water everyday that is laced with these harmful
chemicals without even knowing it. B. The natural environment Much of the
early concerns over the effects of acid rain are on the trees. The concern is
centered on the direct contact of the acid rain to the leaves of the trees. It
was estimated that more then sixty five percent of trees are effected by acid
rain.1 The rain scars the leaves, withers ferns and lichens, accelerates the
death of coniferous needles, sterilizes seeds, and weakens the forest to a
state that is vulnerable to disease infestation.3 The rate of forest growth in
New Hampshire has declined eighteen percent between 1956 and 1965.3 Forests
arent alone in the devastation. It has also been found that twenty thousand
lakes have been acidified through the changes in the groundwater.1 The soil is
receiving what seems to be an overdose of fertilizer or a large drenching of
vinegar. Unfortunately the damage to the soil may not be reversible or
repairable. On some croplands, tomatoes only grow to half of their full weight
as well as other crop deformities. These problems not only effect the
environment, but they also effect the economy. III. Effects of acid rain on
the economy Because of acid rain, many fish have died. This reduces the
ability of fish being caught and sold. People who rely on fishing for their
income may find themselves without a job. Owners of farms may be unable to
produce quality crops to be sold. With the continued deterioration of
buildings, the economy will have to spend more money to repair such problems.
A. Economic costs of acid rain It currently costs the American automobile
industry sixty one million dollars each year to use acid-resistant paint on
new vehicles. In turn, the cost of the vehicle will increase to compensate for
the cost of the resistant paint. This inflation in automobile cost can prove
to be a problem for many that rely on a car but can not afford the influx.
Acid rain is also responsible for the loss of two billion to four billion
dollars worth of wheat, corn, soybeans, and peanuts. This is devastating for
the income of the farmers as well as the people who purchase these goods.
Without these goods being readily available, the prices will increase and the
products could become hard to get. The National Academy of Science estimates
damage from acid rain to be at least five billion dollars a year in the United
States alone.4 IV. Attempts by the economy to control the acid rain problem A.
The Clean Air Act Amendment of 1990 There have been many propositions and
attempts to reduce the production of acid rain. In order to make this attempt;
the emission of sulfur dioxide must be reduced. One way of doing this was by
passing the Clean Air Act. The 1990 Clean Air Act's sulfur dioxide reduction
program will complement health-based sulfur dioxide pollution limits already
in place to protect the public and the environment from both nearby and
distant sources of sulfur dioxide. The law sets up a market-based system
designed to lower sulfur dioxide pollution levels. Beginning in the year 2000,
annual releases of sulfur dioxide will be about forty percent lower than the
1980 levels.3 Reducing sulfur dioxide releases should cause a major reduction
in acid rain. The reduction is accomplished in two phases. Phase I of the
program went into effect January 1, 1995.4 Big coal-burning boilers in one
hundred and ten power plants in twenty-one Midwest, Appalachian, Southeastern
and Northeastern states will have to reduce releases of sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxide omissions.4 As a result of Phase I, acid rain concentrations
have lowered by twenty five percent.4 Today, the average cost annually
experienced in Phase I is about two hundred dollars per ton.7 In 2000, Phase
II of the acid rain program goes into effect, further reducing the sulfur
dioxide releases from the big coal-burning power plants and covering other
smaller polluters.3 Affected sources are required to install systems that
monitor emissions in order to track progress. The average annual cost for this
phase is about one hundred and eighty five to two hundred and twenty dollars
per ton.7 To cut down on nitrogen oxide pollution, EPA will require power
plants to reduce their nitrogen oxide releases, and will require reductions in
nitrogen oxide releases from new cars. Reducing nitrogen oxide releases will
reduce both acid rain and smog formation. Companies that release less than the
amount of regulated emissions can sell pollution credits to other companies.4
Each source must have sufficient credits to cover its annual emissions.
Companies that fail to meet the federal requirements are subject to a two
thousand dollar per ton excess emission fee.4 B. The Air Quality Accord This
agreement was signed by the United States and Canada to guarantee cleaner air
and a healthier environment for both Canadians and Americans.5 On August 5,
1980, the United States and Canada agreed to Memorandum of Intent concerning
transboundrary air pollution. The Memorandum of Intent stated that sulfur and
nitrogen oxide emissions would be lowered by using previous laws that were
established through the Clean Air Act. Scientists were appointed on both sides
to regulate the progress. This agreement only intensified the debate instead
of solving the problem. The Canadians felt that the United States were not
progressing and following the agreed laws so they denounced the existing
agreement.5 After many years of conflict the United States and Canada signed
yet another agreement in 1986.5 C. The Joint Report of the Special Envoys on
Acid Rain In this report the United States publicly stated that acid rain was
a serious environmental problem and agreed to implement a five year, five
hundred billion dollar technology demonstration program.5 In the end, it was
found that the US was not going to take serious action to control the acid
rain problem. In 1990 when President George Bush was elected he signed the
Clean Air Act. This is when Canada and the United States agreed to once again
sign the Air Quality Accord. From then on the accord deemed success. Even
though this accord deemed success the Canadians still believe that the United
States is the major cause of their acid rain problems.5 Canada also feels they
have done more to control the effects of the acid rain pollution in North
America.5 D. What is Europe Doing? Europe has formed the United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe (UN-ECE).6 The European nations have signed two
protocols on sulfur aimed at their acid rain problems. 1. The 1985 Helsinki
Protocol on the Reduction of Sulfur This protocol calls for a significant drop
in transboundrary emissions by all parties that participate.6 Twenty-one ECE
countries, including Canada have accepted this protocol. By 1980 they have
dropped emissions by fifty percent.6 2. The 1994 Olso Protocol on Further
Reduction of Sulfur Eighteen countries including Canada have ramified this
protocol.6 The goal of this protocol is to reduce the area where acid rain
exceeds the critical loads according to a formula that minimizes the total
cost of reduction.6 The UN-ECE is also trying to negotiate another protocol to
address acid rain as well as smog and other effects. V. How to prevent and
educate about acid rain A. Acid Rain 2000 The primary aim of Acid Rain 2000 is
to educate young people about the changing nature of acid rain and the
response of environmental systems to these changes.2 The participants of this
program will be informed of the causes of acid rain and they will also
recognize that the effect of acid disposition is variable and dependent on the
capacity of a particular system to absorb the pollution.2 The project targets
children of all ages because the awareness of acid rain is not restricted to
any age level. At the primary school level the children will take part in
simple monitoring programs to record acid rain levels. At the secondary level,
children will be able to analyze the results.2 Schools from all around the
world participate in this program because the acid rain problem is
international. Without joining a program there are many things that can be
done to help reduce formation of acid rain. They are: Conserve electricity.4
Use automobiles less.4 Collect water/snow samples and test them for pH.4
Contact local environmental groups about their involvement in the acid rain
issue.4 Study historical sites, buildings or monuments in your area and
determine how they are being affected by acid rain.4 VI. Conclusion Acid rain
can be a devastating problem to all countries, but with the implementation of
the Clean Air Act, the Accord, and many other reforms that call for the
reduction of sulfur and nitrogen oxide releases, the acid rain problem can be
regulated. With help from everyone being conscious about what they are doing
day to day to contribute to the problem, the issue can turn to be a problem of
the past. Since the passage of the Clean Air Act, acid rain levels have fallen
dramatically across large portions of North America.8 But the decline doesnt
mean that the problem is gone. There is still much that everyone can do to
help the problem and to help lower the annual cost to the economy. If you are
interested in learning more about the acid rain problem you may want to
contact the Acid Rain Foundation in Raleigh, North Carolina, The Department of
Environmental Protection in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, or Pennsylvanians for
Acid Rain Control in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. These and thousands of other
organizations strive to educate the community about the acid rain problem and
would be more than happy to send you information about what you can do to
help.
_Bibliography _
Bibliography Leslie R. Alm, "Scientists and the Acid Rain policy in Canada and
the US." Science, Technology, and Human Values, 1997, 349 "Acid Rain: Bad News
About The Good News" Business Week, 25 October 1999, 95 Anne E. Smith, Jeremy
Platt, A. Denny Ellerman, "The cost of reducing SO2: Its (higher than you
think)" Public Utilities Fortnightly, 15 May 1998, 22
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