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_The History of Art _
By: Anonymous
The multifaceted and complex intricacies that are woven throughout the
centuries in art are unrealistic to attempt in this format. Therefore, because
the focus for the majority of the focus throughout history has been on the
humanistic form the concentration will be on that. Art was the first written
language and to study the history of art is to study the history of
civilizations and humankind. The Paleolithic cave paintings in France, when
viewed in the modern western perspective can only be speculated at as to the
intent and/or purpose of the original artisans. Perhaps the paintings of
animals were the focal point of a religious ceremony or ritual, surveyed
before the hunt, to bring success or perhaps part of a celebration or
documentation after the successful hunt. It appears that art from the earliest
history into the Renaissance focuses around religious ceremonies of some type.
Plato believed art to be a form of communication on a metaphysical level. The
modern western view of art appears to support his supposition in this regard.
However, his student Aristotle felt that art was a reflection and invocation
derived from the scientific forms of nature. Clearly, his ideology does not
fit into the Ancient Worlds artistic representations. As art evolves
throughout history it intersects with Aristotles philosophy although not for
many centuries will we begin to see his naturalistic/scientific theory evolve.
Human beings are born, live, and held prisoners of their bodies. Since the
beginning of time, the human form has been represented in pictorial
depictions. Representation of animals and nature appear to only be depicted in
ways to enhance the human race; either through religious, mystical, hunting
charms, or whatever the themes all center around humans. The form does take on
specific significance when viewed in the context of history and culture. The
Venus of Willendorf is the earliest officially dated sculpture know to the
modern western world yet she is far different from the Aegeans Cycladic
figures known as the Minoan age. Yet both figurines the full-figured
Willendorf and the slender Cycladic figure are interpreted by modern scholars
to represent their cultures mythological belief in aiding the deities if their
time period in reproduction. Without the scientific knowledge of later
generations, it is assumed that these figures were representations to invoke
fertility. Mesopotamia art was centered in what are now Iran and Iraq. The
developing cultures (Assyrians, Sumerians, Babylonians, etc) in the area,
between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, which is sometimes called the "Cradle
of Civilization" or the "Fertile Crescent", are credited with the invention of
cuneiform writing which is shown to us in the Stele (law code) of Hamarabi.
Within these cultures, rulers often conferred with the religious leaders and
religion was an important part of their society. The unique character of
Sumerian art is exemplified by a group of votive statues from the Abu Temple,
at Tell Asmar. The identities of these statues are unclear. However, it is an
educated theory that they served Abu, God of vegetation, and they represent
priests, and worshipers. There is no indication that these figures were
intended to represent a naturalistic scheme. It is important to note that the
symbolization is that of the human form and representative of some form of
authoritarian hierarchy. Tracking the human form and its relationship to art,
history, and culture as the human figure evolves through the centuries as
artists perfect their talents is an effective way to establish how art has
evolved throughout all culture and erasThe architecture form the ancient
world throughout history also reflects the cultures religious beliefs and in
most civilizations was designed with humankind in mind. The erection of the
citadels during the Mesopotamia historical era is built to provide protection
of the temples and palaces. They are decorated in relief and personify power,
religious themes, and the cultural beliefs about the human form and its
relationship to the universe. The Human-Headed winged lion from Nimrud is the
perfect example. The tremendous stone slabs are carved into enormous
human-headed winged beasts, a bull, and a lion. The lion wears a horned cap
indicating divine status, while the animals body is endowed with a device
unique to the Mesopotamia art style. It has five legs, so that from the front
it appears motionless. However, from the side view it implies the figure is
walking. The impression of intimidation and formability radiates from the
citadel. Egyptian art radiates the directive of continuity, a seamless stretch
of time that reaches back to infinity, yet forward into history all at once.
The Sphinx serves much the same purpose for the Egyptians as the citadel
depictions did for the Mesopotamian era. It symbolizes stability,
intimidation, protection, order, and endurance. It was built about 2530 B.C.E.
The Sphinx faces the sun and is massive in height. It has the body of a
reclining lion and the head of a man, most likely the Pharaoh Chefren. In the
Egyptian culture, the Pharaoh was God and the body and soul were one so it was
essential to preserve the body. A Pharaoh might spend all of his lifetime
constructing a temple, or pyramid, so that his remains, along with those of
his family, would remain intact for throughout time. Hieroglyphics were the
written language. Although an exaggeration Plato stated that Egyptian art had
remained the same for ten thousand years. There are many consistencies
throughout Egyptian art that have remained stable and virtually unchanged.
Aristotles scientific and math theories are represented in much of the
Egyptian art and architecture. The pyramids and sculptures used scientific
knowledge and mathematical skill, portraying logical balance and symmetry. The
Seated Scribe is a typical representation of the Egyptian sculpture. The
sculpture is indicative of reverence to the perfection of the human form
showing intelligence and reverence at once. Egyptian painting reveals the same
clear visual motifs and illustrative skills that the architecture and
sculptures do. Their love of exact detail, meticulous depiction, and
biological precision are constants throughout their history. The use of the
hierarchical scale to enhance important figures and representing men in a dark
red complexion and women in a lighter yellowish coloration attests to their
dedication to true representation. The artistic culture of the Aegean
parallels in time those of Egypt and the Mesopotamia eras about 3000 B.C.E.
The Cycladic, Minoan, and the Mycenaean cultures are the three most prominent
in the Grecian area. Historians know little about the Cycladic civilization
except the nude female figure mentioned earlier believed to have been a
fertility symbol of some type and the Harp Player. The Harp Player is carved
in marble and so life like that the viewer is left with the impression that he
is actually playing his instrument. The artist lengthened the harpist arms so
that they curve into the harp itself. The arms are subtly muscular. The piece
is as highly stylized and the essence of shape is clear as with the Cycladic
female figurines. The Minoan culture living in Crete were skilled painters.
Numerous frescos have survived. The cheerful, happy go lucky, and humorousness
of society is represented in them. The Toreador Fresco features a bull thought
to be a special animal to them. The human figures in the fresco are animated
and performing various feats and activities that lend the impression of game
and fun. The composition is well-balanced and beautifully graceful curves. The
Snake Goddess is thought to be a priestess or queen of the Minoans. The little
terra cotta sculpture has wiggling snakes in her hands leading some historians
to speculate on the possibility of some form of religious statue, because of
the belief that the Minoans worshiped a female deity. Like the Mycenaeans
they built temples and palaces. However the Mycenaeans flourished in about
1600 to 1100 B.C.E. and are noted for their elaborate tombs. The Mycenaeans
were master goldsmiths and used gold for jewelry, masks, utensils, weapons,
and decoration for architectural structures. The Rhton drinking cup is
beautifully constructed in the shape of a lion's head contrasting smooth
planar sections and extremely detailed nose and mane. The Indian subcontinent
called the Indus Valley burgeoned around 2700 1500 B.C.E. Relatively few
artworks have been unearthed from this civilization so little is known of
them. The torso from Harappa is made of stone and is only about four inches
high but it gives an insight into the civilization that so little is known
about. The well formed muscular composition and naturalistic form brings the
piece alive. The protruding belly has been thought to represent the yogi
philosophy showing breath is life. The high glossy polished exterior
resembles the texture of warm skin. In contrast to the Indus Valley China
developed earlier than 2000 B.C.E. the exact date is unknown by historians.
Chinas Shang and Zhou artists are best known for their sophistication and
skill with bronze casting for sculptures and ritual vessels. The Tiger from
the ninth century B.C.E., the relief is a series of ornate geometric designs.
The sculpture is perfectly balanced, highly stylized, and intricately formed.
Meso-America was another early culture from which some of the oldest art
originates. The Olmec civilization had its beginnings about 1500 B.C.E. The
Olmec were farmers, widely dispersed through the region but their society had
absolute religious and political concentrations, prominently San Lorenzo and
La Venta. The two sites harbored a dozen huge heads carved from basalt. The
enormous heads are eight feet tall and weigh approximately ten tons apiece.
The heads have broad flat noses, heavy lips, hooded eyes and they all have
different head coverings that look like some kind of a headdress with distinct
designs on each of them. The Olmec also worked in ceramics. Several examples
of the figure called baby have been found made out of the ceramics. The baby
figures are almost life-size. They are chubby infants sucking on their
fingers. There is no explanation for what they were intended to represent
although several theories abound the real intent remains a mystery. The
discovery of Greek/Roman artifacts in the late 1800's became an inspiration
for art and architecture of the 19th and 20th centuries. Therefore, the
Greek/Roman cultures are extremely important in their relationship to our
world today. We continue to see the unfolding of what they accomplished and
wallow in their knowledge of architecture, sculpture, drama, and sports. Their
similarities in architecture, art, religion are virtually interchangeable in
many aspects as the Romans copied much of the Greeks culture. Some historians
believe inferiority. The Roman culture appears to be a continuation of Greek
society. Their religion included multiple gods with Zeus as their leader.
Pottery from this historic era depicts stories of the culture, which created
it with figures either painted in red on a black background named Red Figure
Ware, or Black figures painted on a red background. The Greeks interest in
the human figure and the need to perfect it pervades all of their artistic
work. The Kouros are a series of sculptures that resemble humans but are
actually suposed to represent youthful boyish Gods. Beauty and the ideal
perfect body for them were the equivalent of the divine soul. The Kouros
figures continue to develop and look more life like through the years. The
hips flesh out, legs and arms are given animation, the muscle begin to be more
fine tuned and less crude. The Contrapasso figure suggests movement and the
false smile of previous art works are replaced with natural and relaxed
expressions. By the last known period referenced as the Hellenistic period the
Greeks were well on their way to perfecting their artistic compositions in
architecture, painting, and sculpture. Romans obvious delight in the Greeks
artistic talent is reflected in the complete duplication of many of their
masterpieces and replicating the architectural structures. The Greeks used a
great deal of bronze for there art work however the Roman copies are mostly in
marbles. The Romans encountered the problem of supporting their copies once
sculpted that the Greeks using bronze did not encounter. The Romans came to
excel at the life like portrait busts. Fides and Concordia are carved so
perfectly the spectator can actually identify with the bust as though it was
living breathing humans. The relief in the architecture is exquisitely and
majestically done in the Column of Trojan. The column is made up of two
thousand five hundred human figures and other animals and pictorial senses
creating a wondrous continuous narrative piece that if about one hundred and
fifteen feet tall. The Roman Coluseum is one of the most commonly recognizable
architectural feats the Romans erected. The Coliseum sports three tiers of
columns everyone different styles the lowest level are made in the Doric
style, the middle in the Ionic style, and the third are the elaborate
Corinthian style. During the early Middle Ages, people began to group into
small city-states or kingdoms. Christianity spread throughout the Europe while
while Islam (Muslims), which began in Mecca, spread throughout Asia and
Northern Africa. Both of these proselytizing religions clashed in the Crusades
when the Muslims pushed into Southern Spain and Eastern Europe. The current
city of Istanbul, located in the isthmus of land between the Black Sea and the
Mediterranean Sea, was originally named Byzantium, renamed for the Christian
leader King Constantine, Constantinople, and finally became Istanbul when it
was taken by the Muslims. Christian art of the era ordinarily has little
perception of depth, in both sculpture and painting with two-dimensional holy
Christian figures having. Often the figures were also viewed from the side
with subject size being determined more by theme than by spatial relationship
within the art. Another thing to keep in mind when looking at the Middle Ages
is that most of the population could not read, that churches, and art in the
churches guided the people in worship. Painting, sculpture and stained glass
were visual documentation that all people could understand in communicating
the stories of the early Christain Church. Church and state were essentially
under the same control and only clergy and royal families could read and owned
books. The invention of printing during the Renaissance would put books into
the hands of the middle class. Narcissistic self-worship continues throughout
western art and culture. Historians consider medieval Europe a deviation, as
the realist form was replaced with a standardized, stylized one.
Fundamentally, there was not much difference from Classical art, the image was
still human and the image of Gods only the method of portrayal was different.
The medieval images reflected societal culture of the day, which was less
rational than reason based as were the Greek/Romans. The end of the Middle
Ages sometimes referred to as the High Middle ages was broken into two
specific styles. The Romanesque which was from about 1050 to 1200 A.D.E.
Romanesque sculptures, paintings, and architecture was modeled after the Greek
and Romans. The style was symmetrical and well balanced typical classic
appearance. The Gothic is the second style. The movement began in France from
about 1200 to the fifth century A.D.E. Artworks of this time have a linear,
graceful, elegant quality in their sculpture, architecture, and paintings. It
was more naturalistic than the Romanesque artwork The renaissance was the
first period in Western history to give a specific name to them. Death, with
the Black Plague and Crusades, and the corruption of both church and state
during the Middle Ages brought on the desire for knowledge which lead to a
rebirth of society in the Renaissance Era. During the Renaissance, the
governmental structure of the smaller kingdoms grew in magnitude and potency.
Investigation and opposition for the influence of encountered acreage funded
political holdings as the world expanded along with the information
accumulation. Furthermore typical of the Renaissance was growth in knowledge
of music, literature, math, science, art, and discoveries of classical
history. Important dates for this era are as follow: 1378 Great Schism between
rival popes create the Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches; 1517 - Martin
Luther posts his thesis on the Wittenberg Cathedral door which begins the
Reformation and Protestantism. Art in Northern Europe abandon the realm of the
church during the Reformation Protestants and discarded the church icons
focusing on genre that dealt with the common settings/themes. Subject matter
while the art and architecture in Southern Europe becomes more ostentatious
and icons flourish Classical antiquity abounds in artistic compositions
during the Renaissance. The political and religious strife has become apparent
as religious art gives way to more naturalistic genres. Artists draw from the
myths of the Greek and Roman eras, landscapes, and portrait painting is done
along with religious art. However, the form and aliveness of the subject
matter into tangible expression is a noted difference. Continuous narrative
themes surfaced and depth and light were utilized in new and exciting ways.
Donatellos St. Mark sculpture is so life like it looks like it could walk
right off the cathedral wall and Giottos The Lamenation in fresco show
psychological and emotional reactions that have the same effect. His use of
dimension and depth was a precursor for future arts to follow. Giottos themes
mirrored Platos theories of art while Leonardo de Vinci began Using
Aristotles in the form of geometric and mathematical calculations in his art
works Baroque art differs from that of the Renaissance in various
significant aspects. Renaissance art exemplified calm and reason and Baroque
was violent and full of emotion and energy. Greater color contrast, more vivid
bright colors, light and dark brings about a complexity not seen in the
simplistic Renaissance artwork. The leading interpreter in this era was
Bernini. His theatrical styles of grand gestures bring an innovative look at
the evolution of the human form from the ancient worlds crude compositions to
believability. In fact, his subject is in ecstasy in his marble, gilt, and
bronze statue of St. Teresa in ecstasy. Rococo an eighteen-century style,
originating in reaction to the grandeur and massiveness of the Baroque era
employed refined, elegant, and highly decorative forms. Although an
extenuation of its preceding period Rococo is smaller in scale and color
schemes are softer. Because the concepts of linear perspective and other
technical skills had been discovered during the Renaissance artist could paint
and sculpt very realistically, some of them started to paint very idealistic
themes. Typically, these romantic pieces of art exemplify park like settings
in a most wonderful and fictional manner. As we enter the modern world we see
art fragment or branch out into various schools of thought such as
Neo-Classicism a continuation from the technically precise technology of the
Renaissance, Impressionism, Abstract, Modern, Post modern. etc. New inventions
or technology have a great affect on the way that artists think and emotions
became important to the person creating art. Neo-Classicism is a European
style of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The perfectionism
of the Greek and Romans in representing the perfect body is evident in La
Grande Odalisque; an oil on canvas painting by Jean Augusta Dominique Ingres.
This eras intent was to reproduce earlier classical ideologies as
authentically as possible using the evolved techniques to perfect the works of
art. In reaction to the Neo-classical movement, Romanticism arose. The focus
was on the emotional over the perfection of reason and spontaneous expression
was highly prized. The stress on drama, turbulent emotions, and imagery in
motion was a direct outcome of the revolution in France forty years earlier.
Liberty Leading the People is filled with all of them. The sense of blurred
motion is created flickering lights and confusion replicated the societal
emotions of the time. Realism was the artists reaction to the two previous
styles again mimicking the shift in the societal culture. Realism stood for
what the eye could actually see. Works of myths, imagination, beauty, and
idolized subject matter were rejected as false. Their concerns were rooted in
the present. Impressionism was a term first used by a journalist ridiculing a
landscape by Monet. Basically he had it correct in that this group of artists
had a common desire to capture the moment and the immediacy of visual
impressions or spontaneity. Prime examples of this desire are depicted by
Claude Monet and the way he wanted to capture Rouen Cathedral in different
light and weather Two discoveries that affected the thinking of the
Impressionists were the invention of photography and the opening of trade with
the orient. Photography, which was invented in 1825 and became a constant by
the 1850s, had the ability to capture the moment and freeze time rendered
portrait painting almost unnecessary as a way to capture the subject for
eternity. Vanity and narcissism had a hay-day with photography. Oriental
prints used genre themes and incorporated composition techniques that
attracted the attention of the impressionistic artists. With the quality and
quantity of photographic images and printing the common person could own and
display images at a reasonable cost. During the 20th century artists began to
look for way to be more expressive, sometimes to the point of reaction. For
the artist emotion is everything and the interpretation is left to the viewer,
many times with different reactions from different people. Art became a
colorless topic with numerous questions and the leading inquiry was "Is it
Art?" The Piazza San Marco, an oil on linen painting by Renoir is a series of
blurred images and the human form is lost in the smudges. Even clearer images
such, as La Lecture by Morisot where the human form of a young girl can be
distinguished is still blurred and unclear. It is as if the movement wanted to
wipe out humanity or blend it into the universal surroundings. Expressionism,
the artistic style that the artist seeks to display not reality, but emotions
and responses. Typically, the art uses distortion, exaggeration, primitivism,
and fantasy to evoke a response from the viewer. In 1911, a new group of
German Expressionists opens the way towards abstraction with it
experimentation and originality. It is Wassily Kandinsky, who is most often
credited with painting the first Abstract picture, in 1910. Abstraction
distorts the human form and makes it almost unascertainable. Cubism as can be
seen in the George Braque painting of Picasso, to the left, the cubistic style
demands that the pictorial elements be influenced by the intersecting of
transparent cubes and cones emphasizing the two-dimensional surface of the
picture plane. Cubism rejects the traditional techniques of perspective
learned in the Renaissance Era and many times depicts numerous sides in the
same view simultaneously. Artists, such as Pablo Picasso, often began painting
in the realistic or impressionistic style, but would spend part of their life
exploring the techniques of cubism or abstraction. Because the rules of
perspective had been historically learned and studied, artists such as the
Dutch graphic artist, M.C. Escher, became most recognized for his spatial
illusions of impossible situations and repeating geometric patterns where the
illusion of depth was adjusted. Escher was a man studied and greatly
appreciated by mathematicians and scientists because of his mathematically
complex structures that require a "second look". In simplicifation, close up,
or minimizing art, the artist is getting rid of the entrapment of enumeration
to give the observer a new and many times neglected view of common objects.
The close up technique used in the works of Georgia OKeef many times is taken
almost to the point of abstraction, but makes us aware of the loveliness in
the parts of the whole flower, which was one of her favorite themes. Artists,
such as, Andy Warhol gave us a new look at every day objects through
repetition and Piet Mondrian or Paul Klee make us look again at basic colors
and shapes. Non-Representational artist Jackson Pollock was painting
abstractly with the drip and splash method in 1947. Instead of using the
traditional easel he affixed his canvas to the floor or the wall and poured
and dripped his paint from a can, manipulating it with sticks, trowels or
knives and adding mixture of foreign matter. This method painting was supposed
to result in a direct expression of the unconscious moods of the artist.
Surrealism was a means of reuniting conscious and unconscious experience so
completely that the world of dream and fantasy would be joined to the everyday
rational world. Historically, while the method of depicting the human form has
changed, the image has remained virtually constant as Plato said about
Egyptian art for thousands of years. The healthy, trim, muscular form that
represents the ideal period of the era. There have been a few moments in
history, such as the artistic works of Renoir and Rubens when a bloated figure
was desirable. The evolution of the human form has been to perfect techniques
to bring it to life not alter conceptions about the type of body artists have
traditionally used to immortalize humanity.
_Bibliography _
Works Cited Americas Smithsonian. USA: Smithsonian, 1996 Debeli, Dawn
Bulging Through History. Direct Art. Spring/Summer 2000: 75-80. vol. 3
Direct Art. Venus of Willendorf. Illustration. Spring/Summer 2000: 75. vol.
3 Gilbert, Rita. Living With Art. 1995 New York: McGraw, 1998. 345-491 ed 5th.
Williams, Natale. Art History. Internet: 1999. 1-8.
http://www.best.com/~natalew/art.html. (June 16, 2000)
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