_Japanese Gardens _
By: Julie Ballinger
Japanese Gardens The role of gardens play a much more important role in Japan
than here in the United States. This is due primarily to the fact the Japanese
garden embodies native values, cultural beliefs and religious principles.
Perhaps this is why there is no one prototype for the Japanese garden, just as
there is no one native philosophy or aesthetic. In this way, similar to other
forms of Japanese art, landscape design is constantly evolving due to exposure
to outside influences, mainly Chinese, that effect not only changing aesthetic
tastes but also the values of patrons. In observing a Japanese garden, it is
important to remember that the line between the garden and the landscape that
surrounds it is not separate. Instead, the two are forever merged, serving as
the total embodiment of the one another. Every aspect of the landscape is in
itself a garden. Also when observing the garden, the visitor is not supposed
to distinguish the garden from its architecture. Gardens in Japan incorporate
both natural and artificial elements, therefor uniting nature and architecture
into one entity. Japanese gardens also express the ultimate connection between
humankind and nature, for these gardens are not only decorative, but are a
clear expression of Japanese cultureAlthough this extremely close
connection of the individual with nature, the basic principle of Japanese
gardens, has remained the constant throughout its history, the ways in which
this principle has come to be expressed has undergone many great changes.
Perhaps the most notable occurred in the very distinct periods in Japanese
history that popularized unique forms of garden styleHeian (781-1185), and
the Kamakura (1186-1393). Resulting from these two golden ages of Japanese
history came the stroll garden from the former period and the Zen garden from
the later. As we shall see, the composition of these gardens where remarkably
effected by the norms of architecture and the ideals of popular religion in
these eras. Therefor, in understanding each garden style in its context, it
essential to also take into account the social, historical, and theological
elements as well as the main stylist differences Japanese aristocrats from
at least mid-eighth century customarily had gardens near their homes. During
the Heian period a somewhat standard type of garden evolved in accordance with
the Shinden type of courtier mansion (Bring and Wayembergh, p. 28-29).
Characteristic of the Heian period was its extremely rigid class
stratification; life for the farmers, merchants and artisans consisted of very
simplified dwellings in comparison to those of members of the aristocracy. The
architecture norm for aristocratic homes was in the Shinden-zurkuri style,
which was clearly based on the principle that the individual parts of the
building should be merged as much as possible into the garden (Yoshida,
p.12). The main building, named the Shinden, represented the area reserved for
the master himself, and always opened up to the south side of the garden.
There were corridors, or tai-no-ya, connecting the Shinden to the rest of the
buildings in the complex. There corridors created an enclosure which is where
a lake would be placed and where the stroll garden was erected Kinkakuji,
also known as the Golden Pavilion (1394), serves as an example of this Shinden
type. The site in northern Kyoto was developed as a large retirement estate by
Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (1358-1409) beginning in 1394. The pavilion itself was
sited the edge of a sprawling palace complex that no longer exists today. This
was intended as proof that the warrior shogunate could contribute to the
cultural and aesthetic life of the land to an extent equal to that of the
imperial aristocracy. It has been recorded that the actual emperor of Japan
visited Kinkakuji in 1408, the first time an emperor had ever stayed with a
person that was not a member of the imperial court. The shogun died the year
after. After his death the palace was turned over to the Rinzai sect of Zen
Buddhism and it has remained under its control ever since The Golden
Pavilion is a three-story viewing and pleasure pavilion constructed on the
edge of a pons as the focal point to a much larger garden on the grounds of
the Rokuoni Temple. The pavilion itself is based on the Chinese Sung style,
though each floor has a somewhat different aesthetic. The first floor was used
as a reception room for the guests and as boarding site for pleasure boating
around the small pond. The second story was for more private parties with an
outstanding view of the garden. The third floor was an intimate space for
meeting with confidantes and holding tea ceremony. Originally, only the
ceiling of the pavilions third floor was guild in gold (hence its name), but
in 1950 it was burned down by a student monk (Hayakawa, p. 18). A replica was
quickly rebuilt in its place and is the example that contemporary visitors
see Equally important to the Shinden as its architecture was the garden
itself. Another complex that contained a stroll garden is referred to as the
temple garden. The grounds surrounding the pavilion lie on four and a half
acres, but the use of landscape elements make its apparent size much bigger.
The foreground is filled with small scale rocks and plantings. The more
distant elements blend into the background, visually extending the garden. Mt.
Kinugasa rises in the background. Meanwhile, the shoreline of lake rolls back
and forth, hiding the true size of the small pond and making it appear as much
larger than it truly is (Ito, p.93-98). The introduction of a new form of
Buddhism, and the symbolism of water color painting from southern China, had a
direct influence on garden design (Yoshida, p.14). This new religion, Pure
Land Buddhism, was having an increasingly influential effect during the Heian
period. The garden was seen as a place where beautiful pavilions stood among
large ponds full of lotus flowers. The idea of paradise was central to the
whole sect&[also] the emphasis was on immortality in this paradise and the
longevity of life (Davidson, p.21). The garden of Kinkakuji is an example of
this new fusion. The stroll garden is a re-creation of a Western paradise with
rock gardens created under the Zen spirit. There is nothing random about the
layout of the garden of the Golden Pavilion. Every aspect has been
preconceived and purposely manipulated. Kinkakuji is park-like in size,
maintaining traditional elements such as islands, bridges, and paths. All of
these elements, tough decorative, hold symbolic meanings. The islands
represent a symbol of longevity and continuing health&and the focal points
for a pond (Davidson, p.36). The bridges have practical functions such as
connecting islands together, though the also have a special function of
creating alternative viewpoints that may not otherwise exist (Davidson,
p.37). In addition there were paths laid-out leading the viewer to numerous
points of worship. This element clearly demonstrates how the garden of
Kinkakuji is a combination of both a Heian stroll garden and the Zen
aesthetic. The paths and the miniature rocks representing mountains in China
fond along these paths were placed strategically to guide the viewer along a
predetermined stroll, allowing the individual to experience orchestrated
vistas. The Kamakura period experienced an increase in the popularization of
Zen Buddhism, this was the religion of choice for the shogun or Samurai class.
The shogun appreciated the strict precision of Zen culture in addition to its
simplicity and refinement. These ideals led to the Zen garden. These gardens
served a completely different purpose than their earlier counterparts. There
was a shift back to an emphasis on looking rather than using. These gardens
were used specifically as aids to a deeper understanding of Zen concepts&these
gardens were not an end in themselves&but a trigger to contemplation and
meditation (Davidson, p.22). Unlike the Golden Pavilion, the Zen gardens were
not meant for viewers to physically interact with, but instead as visual
stimulus in the meditative processa spiritual aid. Ryoanji, at the Daiju-in
Temple in Kyoto (1488-1499) is one of the most famous and celebrated gardens
in Japan and is an example of the Zen aesthetic. Simply composed of stone and
sand, it serve as a subtle and yet effective example of the dry garden type,
or karesansui. The garden consists of a flat, rectangular surface measuring
thirty by seventy-eight feet. It is located on the south side of the temple.
On its north side is located the long verandah where the visitors appreciate
the garden. To its east, the garden is bounded by a thin low wall. One the
southern and western side, a low wall with thatched roof tile surrounds the
rock garden. The wall, originally white in color has turned into a rusty
earthy color, blending well with the rest of the garden. The garden itself is
composed of fifteen stones in five groups, lying on white raked sand (Kincaid,
p. 66-73). As illustrated above, the arrangement of the rocks leads the
viewers eye from left to right. The biggest rock makes the group of three in
the left. As the big rock slopes to the right, it leads the viewers eye to
the same direction. The group of five in the back lies low to elongate the
horizon of the viewer, and incorporate the wall as the dominating horizon in
the garden view. In addition, this group of five serves as the counter-balance
to the sweeping rightward movement, as it leans to the left. The viewers eyes
then meet a second group of five on the right, which continues the composition
leading it to the right. Finally, the group of two in front copies the
movement of the group of five, finisheing the complete movemnt in this garden
(Ito, 19). The result is an asymmetric composition which achieves a certain
balance. Rhythm is achieved in the composition of the garden by arranging the
stones in different alternating heights, creating a sense of movement for the
eye. One can realize the importance of harmony and design of the garden as
each stone is carefully placed in their own positions. Each factorposition,
height, and coloris taken into account to create an environment of harmony.
The use of the dry garden has had a long history in Japan. During the medieval
ages, the Japanese began to experiment in unique and abstract ways with the
use of rocks, while still keeping such traditional features such as the pond,
stream, and artificial island. From this point on, rocks of various shapes and
sizes where increasingly used to represent both natural formations and
man-made ones, including mountains, cliffs, waterfalls, and bridges. Also,
sand and white pebbles were used as water and therefor, in some of these old
gardens, the pond was eliminated, which had been the central focus of Japanese
gardens for centuries (Kincaid, p.22-23) In contrast to Kinkakuji, the
garden of Ryoanjis function is purely meditative. Unlike the Golden Pavilion,
there is a designated area for viewers to sit and contemplate the scene before
them. In understanding this gardens function one must realize that it relies
on understatement, simplicity, suggestion and implication&leaving room for the
imagination by providing a starting point (Davidson, p.23). The design of
this dry-rock garden stands in stark contrast to the elaborate gardens of the
Heian period; no longer do we see an complex landscape complete with lake,
winding paths, bridges, islands, trees and plants. This idea of rigid
simplicity, not focusing on elements of elaborately constructed vistas, but on
elements meant to symbolize these landscapes The elements used to create
this Zen garden are simple abstractions of nature (Kincaid, p.65). The rocks
play an essential role in the design of this garden, while maintain two
functions. They have an intrinsic beauty of their own, and one the other
hand, can represent something altogether larger and more universal (Davidson,
p.38). These rocks are used to symbolize religious meanings, and also to
portray larger structures such as mountains. These rock formations can also
represent islands, while the bed of gravel is seen as a body of water. Yet one
must also note that this is merely just one interpretation of the gardens
meaning and perhaps the most widely accepted Another element of this rock
garden is the wall that lines one side. It is very old and weathered over
time. The use of this wall to finish this Zen garden compliments it by
bringing in one of the three key Zen aestheticswabi. Wabi refers to the
poverty or rusticness; a preference for the old and worn. According to wabi,
value is determined in what is wathered by time as opposed to the new and
untouched. The use of this wall in completion of the garden was perhaps a
conscious attempt by its creatures to instill one of the most important
aspects of Zen thought Both the Heian stroll garden of Kinkakuji and the Zen
garden of Ryoanji express very different fundamentals in the art of garden
design. Whereas the former relies on synthesized naturalism for religious
significance, the latter uses abstraction and representation to achieve
spirituality. In addition, the viewers actual physical relationship between
the two gardens is fundamentally different. While the Shinden stroll garden
invites the viewer to take an active physical role in the garden, walking
along its winding paths and boating along the shores of its lake, the viewer
of the Zen garden is physically removed from the actual garden; restricted to
observing it from a specific verandah. Likewise, the architectual structures
of the Heian stroll garden are completely integrated into the actual garden
itself. The Zen garden, on the other hand, the architecture (single temple)
serves as a mere background for the garden and not part of the whole
composition. Despite these differences in presentation, design, and the
relationships between the garden, viewer, and the architecture, the general
goal of both garden types are inherently the same. In the Japanese tradition,
these gardens are meant to function as aids in understanding in one form or
another. In addition, both demonstrate the emphasis on the relationship
between humankind and natureperhaps one of the most important elements of
Japanese art and architecture.
_Bibliography _
A.K. Davision, The Art of the Zen Gardens. Boston: Houghtom Mifflin, 1983.
Bring, Mitchell, and Wayembergh, Josse. Japanese GardensDesign and Meaning.
McGraw-Hill series in Landscape and Landscape Architecture. McGraw-Hill, 1981.
Hayakawa, Masao. The Garden Art of Japan. Trans. Richard Gage.
Weatherhill.Heibonsha, 1973. Ito, Teiji. The Japanese GardenAn Approach to
Nature. Trans. By Donald Richie. Yale University Press, 1972. Kincaid, Mrs.
Paul, Japanese Garden and Floral Art. New York: Hearthside Press Inc., 1966.
Kucke, Loraine. The Art of Japanese Gardens. New York: The John Day Company,
1940. Yoshida, Tetsuro, Gardens of Japan. New York: Fredrick A. Praeger, 1957.
Word Count: 2351
| 
